Tuiteando sobre refugiados : una comparación internacional de discursos, imaginarios y representaciones sociales
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Abstract
Desde su inicio, la llamada crisis de los refugiados produjo situaciones
dramáticas a diario en referencia al alto número de personas desplazadas,
fallecidas y desaparecidas, situaciones de vulnerabilidad y riesgo y el rechazo de
gobiernos y ciudadanos en las sociedades de destino. Las redes sociales en
Internet, entre ellas Twitter, han funcionado como herramientas de comunicación
digital donde transmitir, interactuar y compartir con el resto de los usuarios estos
y otros sucesos gracias a su popularidad, inmediatez y actualidad.
El objetivo general de esta tesis doctoral ha sido conocer los imaginarios,
representaciones sociales y discursos que se plasman en Twitter sobre las
personas refugiadas en el contexto de la crisis migratoria, identificar las
narrativas dominantes, los contenidos que las acompañan, e identificar y
caracterizar a los principales actores que han participado en el debate desde una
perspectiva internacional al obtener los datos en diferentes idiomas. Se ha
pretendido también conocer si los discursos se polarizan ideológicamente, en qué
términos y quién o quiénes están detrás de cada extremo. Igualmente se han
comparado los contenidos, los discursos y los actores presentes en una campaña
específica en Twitter, el Día Mundial de los Refugiados de 2016, con los
resultados obtenidos de los objetivos anteriores.
Esta investigación se inició con fase de extracción de datos de Twitter
durante un año completo (mediados de diciembre de 2015 a mediados de
diciembre de 2016), en diferentes días y horas de la semana a través de la
herramienta NodeXL y a partir de la cadena de búsqueda “refugiados” en
diferentes idiomas: español (“refugiados”), inglés (“refugees”), alemán
(“fluechtlinge”), francés (“réfugiés”), italiano (“rifugiati”) y portugués
(“refugiados”). La muestra está compuesta por un total de 1.807.901 tuits.
Posteriormente se aplicaron diversas técnicas de procesamiento y filtrado de
datos para trabajar con diferentes datasets en función del análisis a llevar a cabo.
Estos han sido análisis de contenido, análisis de discurso y análisis de redes
sociales, a partir de redes de retuits. Para el procesamiento y el análisis se han
utilizado Spss, Excel, Atlas.ti, T-LAB y Gephi principalmente. Los resultados arrojan una serie de narrativas polarizadas que se
relacionan con estrategias de humanización y deshumanización, así como con
imaginarios y representaciones sociales. Por una parte, discursos de apoyo a las
personas refugiadas, campañas de apoyo o pro-refugiados, valoraciones críticas
respecto a las políticas europeas que se llevaron a cabo para abordar la crisis y
diversos tipos de mensajes destinados a la sensibilización a favor de colectivos
vulnerables, en los que entran en juego imaginarios sobre la moral y la inocencia
y representaciones sociales de Occidente, de los y las niñas y las mujeres. Estas
narrativas parten principalmente de organizaciones y movimientos sociales de
apoyo a la población refugiada. Por otra parte, discursos negativos con
componentes de incitación al odio y al racismo, posturas claramente anti-islam y
que incluyen argumentaciones estereotipadas que apoyan un discurso del miedo
hacia este grupo social. Estos discursos se valen de representaciones sociales de
las personas refugiadas como sujetos meramente religiosos (en concreto
musulmanes) a los que se presupone una práctica homogénea de manera radical
y violenta, así como la representación de los refugiados como amenaza en un
contexto de narrativas de securitización. Los discursos presentan un importante
componente emocional manifestado a través de metáforas, indignación,
catastrofismos o exageraciones que producen una sensación de descontrol y
afianzan el miedo. Estos discursos se valen de medios de comunicación
conservadores o de extrema derecha o fuentes acusadas de compartir noticas
falsas y teorías de la conspiración para reformar los argumentos. Los actores
detrás de estos discursos tienden a ser anónimos o con poca información que los
caracterice, y algunas de sus cuentas en Twitter están actualmente suspendidas.
Se ha encontrado una cierta diversidad en las narrativas en función de la lengua
o el territorio desde el que provengan. Existen aspectos comunes compartidos
entre los diferentes contextos, pero los discursos, imaginarios y representaciones
sociales no son universales.
Se finaliza con algunas reflexiones en torno a la necesaria respuesta desde
la intervención social dirigida a la gestión de la diversidad y las políticas de
integración para la población refugiada, y a la lucha contra las teorías de la conspiración, noticias falsas, desinformación y discursos de odio en las redes
sociales.
Since its origin, the so-called refugee crisis has produced daily dramatic and humanitarian situations according to the high number of displaced, dead, and missing people, vulnerability, and risks, not to say the rejection of refugees by some governments and citizens in several countries. Social networks on the Internet, including Twitter, have functioned as digital communication tools to transmit, interact and share these and other events with other users thanks to their popularity, immediacy, and timeliness. This doctoral thesis's general objective was to know the imaginaries, social representations, and discourses expressed on Twitter about refugees in the context of the migration crisis. Relevant objectives were also to identify the dominant narratives, messages accompanying them, and identifying and characterizing the main actors participating in the public debate on Twitter about refugees, from an international perspective. It also intended to know if the narratives were ideologically polarized to know who supported each group. Likewise, we wanted to compare the messages, discourses, and actors of a specific Twitter campaign -2016, World Refugee Day- with the results obtained from the previous objectives. This research started with a data mining phase from Twitter (mid December 2015 to mid-December 2016), an entire year, on different days and times of the week through the NodeXL tool. Data were recovered from the search string "refugees" in different languages: Spanish ("refugiados"), English ("refugees"), German ("fluechtlinge"), French ("réfugiés"), Italian ("rifugiati") and Portuguese ("refugiados"). The sample consists of a total of 1,807,901 tweets. Subsequently, various data processing and filtering techniques were applied to work with different datasets depending on the analysis to be done. These were content analysis, discourse analysis and social network analysis, based on networks of retweets. Spss, Excel, Atlas.ti, T-LAB and Gephi, especially, were used for these analyses. The results yield a series of polarized narratives related to humanization and dehumanization strategies, as well as social imaginaries and representations. On the one hand, we found different discourses of support for refugees or pro refugee campaigns. Also, critical assessments of the European policies addressing the crisis, and various types of messages aimed at raising awareness in favour of vulnerable groups emerged. Imaginaries about morality and innocence and social representations of the West, girls and women also came into play. Behind these narratives are mainly organizations and social movements supporting refugees. On the other hand, we found negative discourses that disseminate refugees' terrible image with incitement components to hatred and racism. There are also anti-Islamic positions that include stereotyped arguments that support a discourse of fear towards this social group. These discourses make use of social representations of refugees as purely religious subjects (specifically Muslims) who are assumed to have homogeneous radical and violent behaviours and the representation of refugees as a threat in a context of securitization narratives. The discourses show a critical emotional component manifested through metaphors, indignation, catastrophism, or exaggerations that produce a sense of out-of control and entrench fear. In both cases, the discourses use conservative or extreme right-wing social media to be disseminated, or sources accused of sharing false news and conspiracy theories to reshape the arguments. The actors behind these discourses tend to be anonymous on Twitter or expose little information about them. Many of them have suspended Twitter accounts. We found diversity in the narratives depending on the language or territory from which they originate. There are common aspects shared among the different contexts, but discourses, imaginaries and social representations were affected by the context, they are not always universal. We conclude with some reflections on the necessary response from a type of social intervention aimed at managing diversity and integration policies for the refugee population in a coordinated and effective manner, and, on the other hand, the fight against conspiracy theories, fake news, and disinformation, as well as hate speech on social networks.
Since its origin, the so-called refugee crisis has produced daily dramatic and humanitarian situations according to the high number of displaced, dead, and missing people, vulnerability, and risks, not to say the rejection of refugees by some governments and citizens in several countries. Social networks on the Internet, including Twitter, have functioned as digital communication tools to transmit, interact and share these and other events with other users thanks to their popularity, immediacy, and timeliness. This doctoral thesis's general objective was to know the imaginaries, social representations, and discourses expressed on Twitter about refugees in the context of the migration crisis. Relevant objectives were also to identify the dominant narratives, messages accompanying them, and identifying and characterizing the main actors participating in the public debate on Twitter about refugees, from an international perspective. It also intended to know if the narratives were ideologically polarized to know who supported each group. Likewise, we wanted to compare the messages, discourses, and actors of a specific Twitter campaign -2016, World Refugee Day- with the results obtained from the previous objectives. This research started with a data mining phase from Twitter (mid December 2015 to mid-December 2016), an entire year, on different days and times of the week through the NodeXL tool. Data were recovered from the search string "refugees" in different languages: Spanish ("refugiados"), English ("refugees"), German ("fluechtlinge"), French ("réfugiés"), Italian ("rifugiati") and Portuguese ("refugiados"). The sample consists of a total of 1,807,901 tweets. Subsequently, various data processing and filtering techniques were applied to work with different datasets depending on the analysis to be done. These were content analysis, discourse analysis and social network analysis, based on networks of retweets. Spss, Excel, Atlas.ti, T-LAB and Gephi, especially, were used for these analyses. The results yield a series of polarized narratives related to humanization and dehumanization strategies, as well as social imaginaries and representations. On the one hand, we found different discourses of support for refugees or pro refugee campaigns. Also, critical assessments of the European policies addressing the crisis, and various types of messages aimed at raising awareness in favour of vulnerable groups emerged. Imaginaries about morality and innocence and social representations of the West, girls and women also came into play. Behind these narratives are mainly organizations and social movements supporting refugees. On the other hand, we found negative discourses that disseminate refugees' terrible image with incitement components to hatred and racism. There are also anti-Islamic positions that include stereotyped arguments that support a discourse of fear towards this social group. These discourses make use of social representations of refugees as purely religious subjects (specifically Muslims) who are assumed to have homogeneous radical and violent behaviours and the representation of refugees as a threat in a context of securitization narratives. The discourses show a critical emotional component manifested through metaphors, indignation, catastrophism, or exaggerations that produce a sense of out-of control and entrench fear. In both cases, the discourses use conservative or extreme right-wing social media to be disseminated, or sources accused of sharing false news and conspiracy theories to reshape the arguments. The actors behind these discourses tend to be anonymous on Twitter or expose little information about them. Many of them have suspended Twitter accounts. We found diversity in the narratives depending on the language or territory from which they originate. There are common aspects shared among the different contexts, but discourses, imaginaries and social representations were affected by the context, they are not always universal. We conclude with some reflections on the necessary response from a type of social intervention aimed at managing diversity and integration policies for the refugee population in a coordinated and effective manner, and, on the other hand, the fight against conspiracy theories, fake news, and disinformation, as well as hate speech on social networks.














